Community Building in the Goffe Street Armory: The Black Expo and Pathways to Adaptive Reuse
Diane Boston and Jeffrey Wong (2020)
1. Physical Description
The Goffe St. Armory was built in 1928-1930 to replace its former location on Meadow Street. The Armory can be divided into five main elements: a large assembly structure, a medium assembly structure, tower, east wing, and west wing. Standing at an imposing height of five stories, the Armory is a brick-clad building with masonry walls and concrete floors and beams. While most of the building is in good shape, peeling paint and a patched parapet are among the disrepairs of the site. In addition, asbestos has been found throughout the Armory which to date has had little abatement work done. Outside the west wing, a community garden of 10 raised beds is also on site, started by the New Haven Land Trust. Surrounding the Armory are several institutional neighbors, including the New Haven County Correctional Facilities, James J. Hillhouse High School, and the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church. All these neighbors share a common greenspace, the De Gale Field. The Armory is currently zoned in a Residential High-Medium Density neighborhood, a fact that the existing building clearly violates. And yet its uniqueness in the urban landscape becomes a strong argument for its preservation and adaptive re-use.
In investigating the Goffe St. Armory, our project will examine the following questions: (1) what networks and community assets can be leveraged to revitalize the Armory? (2) how can similar sites be used as models to propose a redevelopment strategy for the Armory? And (3) how can we engage the community to create a living history of the Armory, recalling the past but also taking active management in its future?
Sources: The New Haven Register, Dana Collection
2. Site History
The Goffe St. Armory’s principal function was housing the Second Company of the Governor’s Foot Guard, a historic state military organization. With roots dating back to the Revolutionary War, the Governor’s Foot Guard has been mobilized for armed conflict both abroad and at home, from the Civil War to World War II. However, the majority of their actions were largely ceremonial, hosting galas and escorting the governor and other heads of state as well as creating reenactments of Connecticut military history. The Goffe St. Armory was also the temporary base for the National Guard, which were mobilized during the 1970 Black Panther trials.
The Goffe St. Armory’s principal function was housing the Second Company of the Governor’s Foot Guard, a historic state military organization. With roots dating back to the Revolutionary War, the Governor’s Foot Guard has been mobilized for armed conflict both abroad and at home, from the Civil War to World War II. However, the majority of their actions were largely ceremonial, hosting galas and escorting the governor and other heads of state as well as creating reenactments of Connecticut military history. The Goffe St. Armory was also the temporary base for the National Guard, which were mobilized during the 1970 Black Panther trials.
Sources: The New Haven Register, Dana Collection
Beyond its military history, the Goffe St. Armory also served an important political and civic role to Connecticut and the local community. From 1701 to 1834, both New Haven and Hartford served as the state’s capital. In times of crisis, the armory held emergency offices for both the governor and mayor of New Haven. Thankfully, the emergency protocol has never been used. During the last quarter of the 20th century, a peaceful and prosperous period, the Armory also opened to public use as an event space. Auto shows, boat shows, indoor track meets, and antique shows brought visitors and the community together in this unique venue. But perhaps the Armory event with the most consequential social impact was the Black Expo.
Sources: The New York Times, The Hartford Courant
The Black Expo took place in a time of deep civil unrest in New Haven. With the backdrop of the 1967 riots in Dixwell and the 1970 Black Panther trials, the Black Expo was organized by the Black Coalition of Greater New Haven, a community organization with roots in the Dixwell Community House, to uplift the black community through advocacy and social enterprises. A multi-day cultural festival, the Black Expo drew African American artists and entrepreneurs from all over the New England area to showcase their wares and highlight the diversity and vibrancy of black culture.
Sources: The Black Coalition Weekly, The New Haven Register
The Black Expo was inspired by Operation Breadbasket, an economic empowerment venture started by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Southern Leadership Christian Conference in Atlanta and Chicago. Similar to its counterparts in Atlanta and Chicago, the New Haven Black Expo featured workshops, forums, and even a beauty pageant. The political elite were also invited and attended the opening ceremonies, including then mayor Frank Logue and former governor Ella Grasso. Yale University, the Rockefeller Foundation, the New Haven Foundation, and local companies provided financial support for the Black Expo.
Source: The Black Coalition Weekly
From 1971 to 1977, the Black Expo was the premiere event celebrating black culture in the New England area. However, hosting and organizing the expo was a massive endeavor of labor and financial resources and cost challenges dovetailed with institutional struggles at the Black Coalition of Greater New Haven and the Black Expo became another memory of the Armory. Attempts to bring back the Black Expo occurred in 2009 and 2014 but has not found a new home to be a permanent, recurring event.
The most recent use of the Armory was City-Wide Open Studios, an exhibition of local artwork from the Greater New Haven area organized by Artspace. Artists were encouraged to take advantage of the interior decor and adapt their installations to the environment.
The most recent use of the Armory was City-Wide Open Studios, an exhibition of local artwork from the Greater New Haven area organized by Artspace. Artists were encouraged to take advantage of the interior decor and adapt their installations to the environment.
Source: Travis Carbonella, “CWOS: Alternative Space Weekend”
Community members were invited to express their artistic voice and engage the artists in dialogue. Unfortunately, the city does not maintain heating or water service for the Armory and no events since have occupied the building. However, art in the Armory is not a new concept. Indeed, during its active military use, the Armory was adorned with frescos, tapestries, statues and other fine furnishings. Some of these items have been moved to Branford following city ownership of the Armory in 2009 but the fate of the rest remains unknown, much like the Armory itself.
Sources: Dana Collection, New Haven Library Local History Collection
3. Site Analysis
Svigals + Partners, Architecture and Art of New Haven, Connecticut created a Site Analysis in 2010. The architecture firm was hired by the City of New Haven to assess the Goffe Street Armory site and structure for potential reuse. These site analyses provide a broad overview of the site in the context of the Dixwell neighborhood, with a focus on zoning and adjacent land uses. Since this study was prepared in 2010, slight changes have occurred in the neighborhood buildings, uses, and zoning. Highlighted in the report are needed environmental remediations, with regard to asbestos and lead, as well as safety requirements, such as fire sprinklers and safe egress, that would be required for building reuse. Svigals + Partners' report is a thorough and thoughtful analysis of the challenges and opportunities of the armory site at 280 Goffe Street, which proposes specific reuses of the building. A meaningful supplement to this study would be community outreach work to assess the neighborhood needs and interests with regard to future uses of the Goffe Street Armory. Workshops could include neighborhood residents, community organizations, local school students, correctional and courthouse administrators, community gardeners, and Whalley Avenue and Dixwell Avenue shopkeepers. The workshops might generate conversations about needed area services, neighborhood character and life, opportunities offered by the armory building, and goals for the neighborhood.
Svigals + Partners, Architecture and Art of New Haven, Connecticut created a Site Analysis in 2010. The architecture firm was hired by the City of New Haven to assess the Goffe Street Armory site and structure for potential reuse. These site analyses provide a broad overview of the site in the context of the Dixwell neighborhood, with a focus on zoning and adjacent land uses. Since this study was prepared in 2010, slight changes have occurred in the neighborhood buildings, uses, and zoning. Highlighted in the report are needed environmental remediations, with regard to asbestos and lead, as well as safety requirements, such as fire sprinklers and safe egress, that would be required for building reuse. Svigals + Partners' report is a thorough and thoughtful analysis of the challenges and opportunities of the armory site at 280 Goffe Street, which proposes specific reuses of the building. A meaningful supplement to this study would be community outreach work to assess the neighborhood needs and interests with regard to future uses of the Goffe Street Armory. Workshops could include neighborhood residents, community organizations, local school students, correctional and courthouse administrators, community gardeners, and Whalley Avenue and Dixwell Avenue shopkeepers. The workshops might generate conversations about needed area services, neighborhood character and life, opportunities offered by the armory building, and goals for the neighborhood.
Source: Svigal+Partners
Sanborn Maps of the Goffe Street Armory property at 290 Goffe Street illustrate property features over time. These maps illustrate the progression of Armory site from private ownership in 1911, in the forms of unbuilt property and single-family residences, to the 1973 state-run Goffe Street Armory. The 1901 and 1911 maps show the private homes which were removed by 1924 from the armory site, and the public property merged with that of the New Haven County Jail. It is possible that the private properties were taken through eminent domain in order to clear the land for the armory. Since located in a red-lined, predominantly black neighborhood, the residents may not have had the power to speak out against a transition of the private property to public use. This choice of location for the Goffe Street Armory raises the question of whether armories, as National Guard centers, were sited to provide a public presence in specific neighborhoods, or whether they were sited based on availability of public land.
Residential Security Maps (redlining maps) were created for New Haven, CT, in 1937 to establish security risk for banks selling mortgages, and the federal government providing mortgage insurance. The Goffe Street Armory site is situated in a former redlined neighborhood, giving a “red” Fourth Grade security rating for the Dixwell neighborhood. Areas noted on the map in red were seen as the most risky, and property investments in these areas were unlikely to obtain mortgages or mortgage insurance. Redlined areas were often communities where people of color lived, since the ethnicity of residents impacted perceived risk for the Homeowners Loan Corporation who created this map. A lack of bank financing in these communities, along with an aversion to lending money to people of color, made home ownership more expensive and less accessible in these neighborhoods. Without the opportunity to own a home, residents were less able to build personal wealth, and the community lost the benefit of more individuals invested in the neighborhood. The federal benefits of home mortgage insurance should have available equally to all citizens, yet certain communities, based on socio-economic lines, were denied access (Rothstein, 2017).
Goffe Street Armory site is situated in an Opportunity Zone, as noted in a Federal map designating Census New Haven Census Track 1416 as a Nominated Opportunity Zone. Federal Opportunity Zones are recognized by the U.S. Department of Treasury as "economically distressed" communities that will benefit by financing to encourage job growth and revitalization. Investors can receive capital gains benefits for investments made in real estate, businesses, or infrastructure in Opportunity Zones. The boundaries of the Dixwell neighborhood outlined in Census Track 1416, and designated an Opportunity Zone, bear a striking resemblance to the boundaries of the redlined district "D4" laid out in the 1937 Residential Security Map noted above. Since located in an Opportunity Zone, investments in the renovation and redevelopment of the Goffe Street Armory may be stimulated by the capital gains benefits offered by the U.S. Department of State.
According to a study of asthma deaths and hospitalizations in New Haven between 2010 and 2014, the Dixwell neighborhood Census Track 1416, where the Goffe Street Armory is located, reported worse than average asthma rates within the city of New Haven with an annual average of 221.3 asthma deaths and hospitalizations, between 2010 and 2014. High asthma rates are commonly associated with poverty and ethnicity (John Hopkins, 2015). A decrease in asthma rates are believed to be related to decreased stress and improved diet and exercise (Gern, 2011). Use of the Goffe Street Armory for a purpose that serves the community to increase social well-being, and provide opportunities for jobs, recreation or healthy food services, would provide a recognized health benefit to the local people.
Source: CT DPH
Our site visits led us to the following observations about the Goffe Street Armory and site:
Our observations and research suggests that the future of the Armory will benefit from engagement of the community with representatives of the owner, the City of New Haven, to bring more focus on needed maintenance of the aging structure, and to develop long-term goals and visions for the historic public building. The Armory could benefit by a coming together of the neighbors, including people from local residences, schools, businesses, and civic organizations who might want to step inside and get to know the Armory better, or share a story or two about their experiences in the building. Opening the Armory doors for community gatherings would build awareness of the future potentials for the historic building in the neighborhood.
- The Armory is a grand civic building in a residential neighborhood that has a powerful silent presence which is often overlooked.
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The park and the Armory have a strong relationship where the park feels like a vast front yard for the Armory, surrounded by local institutions, private homes, and small businesses.
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The side yard of the Armory is active with gardeners, their planting beds, flowers and vegetables.
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Maintenance of the building must be addressed to protect the Armory from further disrepair.
- The broad view of New Haven from the rooftop of the Armory is an asset that could be utilized to celebrate the historic structure and provide a connection between the local neighborhood and the city as a whole
Our observations and research suggests that the future of the Armory will benefit from engagement of the community with representatives of the owner, the City of New Haven, to bring more focus on needed maintenance of the aging structure, and to develop long-term goals and visions for the historic public building. The Armory could benefit by a coming together of the neighbors, including people from local residences, schools, businesses, and civic organizations who might want to step inside and get to know the Armory better, or share a story or two about their experiences in the building. Opening the Armory doors for community gatherings would build awareness of the future potentials for the historic building in the neighborhood.
Source: Svigal+Partners
4. Precedents
In order to better understand possible opportunities for development and community use of the Goffe Street Armory, we studied three precedents: the Newburgh Armory in Newburgh, New York, the Swift Factory in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Cranston Street Armory in Providence, Rhode Island.
The success of the Newburgh Armory seems to lie in the philanthropy and leadership of a local individual, William Kaplan, along with extensive relationships with local and regional public and private organizations that support and benefit from the use of the Armory. Kaplan leads a non-profit group that developed and runs the Newburgh Armory entirely for public use, and which funds operations by lease of the indoor field space, classrooms, meeting room, and office spaces. The Goffe Street Armory resembles the Newburgh Armory in building history, size, indoor space types, and neighborhood needs, which suggests similar end uses. In addition, the development of a gathering of local New Haven organizations for support and possible use of the Goffe Street Armory, similar to Newburgh, could benefit the development of the Armory under a philanthropic non-profit organization.
Also driven by a community-minded non-profit, the Swift Factory, when open, will provide support to the local community in the form of job training, job creation, fresh food services, small office space rentals, and community health services. Community Solutions, a non-profit of New York City motivated to provide solutions to homelesness by developing community systems that prevent homelessness, has committed to the Hartford community for the long term. The development is creatively financed by an array of incentives and philanthropy, and supported over time by rent from businesses, such as kitchen spaces for food prep, and office spaces. The Swift Factory provides a model to the Goffe Street Armory for project financing in Connecticut in neighborhoods that are due for public investment, as well as for a building use that is entirely driven by community needs.
Cranston Street Armory, unlike the other precedents, has not yet been renovated for reuse, yet has set a pathway for development and community use. Owned by the State of Rhode Island, the Armory has been maintained to prevent building damage over time, and is waiting for an acceptable proposal for development from a private firm. The state has established a variety of conditions to development, including public access and use of a portion of the historic building. Though the Cranston Street Armory is much larger than the Goffe Street Armory, they are both owned by the public, and the intent is reuse in a way that supports the local community. The public Requests for Proposals put out by Rhode Island to find a private developer that suits the needs of the community, and the state’s commitment to pay for upkeep of the building prior to development, provide models that could be followed by the City of New Haven for the Goffe Street Armory. Connecticut and New Haven could also provide tax credits and incentives similar to those offered by the State of Rhode Island that prove beneficial to community development of the historic building.
The precedent study illustrates how each development project is unique, with a pathway to use that is unpredictable and changing. As discussed, numerous parallels can be found between the Goffe Street Armory and these precedents. A better understanding of the challenges managed through the development of these precedents, as well as the opportunities taken to allow them to happen, might help to drive the community reuse of the Goffe Street Armory.
In order to better understand possible opportunities for development and community use of the Goffe Street Armory, we studied three precedents: the Newburgh Armory in Newburgh, New York, the Swift Factory in Hartford, Connecticut, and the Cranston Street Armory in Providence, Rhode Island.
The success of the Newburgh Armory seems to lie in the philanthropy and leadership of a local individual, William Kaplan, along with extensive relationships with local and regional public and private organizations that support and benefit from the use of the Armory. Kaplan leads a non-profit group that developed and runs the Newburgh Armory entirely for public use, and which funds operations by lease of the indoor field space, classrooms, meeting room, and office spaces. The Goffe Street Armory resembles the Newburgh Armory in building history, size, indoor space types, and neighborhood needs, which suggests similar end uses. In addition, the development of a gathering of local New Haven organizations for support and possible use of the Goffe Street Armory, similar to Newburgh, could benefit the development of the Armory under a philanthropic non-profit organization.
Also driven by a community-minded non-profit, the Swift Factory, when open, will provide support to the local community in the form of job training, job creation, fresh food services, small office space rentals, and community health services. Community Solutions, a non-profit of New York City motivated to provide solutions to homelesness by developing community systems that prevent homelessness, has committed to the Hartford community for the long term. The development is creatively financed by an array of incentives and philanthropy, and supported over time by rent from businesses, such as kitchen spaces for food prep, and office spaces. The Swift Factory provides a model to the Goffe Street Armory for project financing in Connecticut in neighborhoods that are due for public investment, as well as for a building use that is entirely driven by community needs.
Cranston Street Armory, unlike the other precedents, has not yet been renovated for reuse, yet has set a pathway for development and community use. Owned by the State of Rhode Island, the Armory has been maintained to prevent building damage over time, and is waiting for an acceptable proposal for development from a private firm. The state has established a variety of conditions to development, including public access and use of a portion of the historic building. Though the Cranston Street Armory is much larger than the Goffe Street Armory, they are both owned by the public, and the intent is reuse in a way that supports the local community. The public Requests for Proposals put out by Rhode Island to find a private developer that suits the needs of the community, and the state’s commitment to pay for upkeep of the building prior to development, provide models that could be followed by the City of New Haven for the Goffe Street Armory. Connecticut and New Haven could also provide tax credits and incentives similar to those offered by the State of Rhode Island that prove beneficial to community development of the historic building.
The precedent study illustrates how each development project is unique, with a pathway to use that is unpredictable and changing. As discussed, numerous parallels can be found between the Goffe Street Armory and these precedents. A better understanding of the challenges managed through the development of these precedents, as well as the opportunities taken to allow them to happen, might help to drive the community reuse of the Goffe Street Armory.
5. Conclusion
The Goffe Street Armory is a landmark structure in New Haven, with a rich history dating back to the Revolutionary War and serving as a grand civic hall for the city. Advocates for the Armory, led by Nadine Horton, recognize this legacy and seek to refurbish and update the Armory for a second life as a community asset. Our work supports this effort through an analysis of precedent armory redevelopments and by highlighting the historic Black Expo as a key moment that can continue to inspire local residents and future generations on black empowerment. And yet the movement has only just begun. As the advocates for the Armory gather momentum, a broad coalition of community supporters will need to be assembled to marshal the political will necessary to break ground on redevelopment. Former funders of the Black Coalition, such as Yale University and the Rockefeller Foundation, can be re-engaged again to provide financial backing. New neighbors such as NextHaven and institutions such as Hillhouse High School should be recruited to generate greater exposure of the Armory. A community memory project can revitalize the Armory in the public consciousness. When a critical mass of the community understands how valuable the Armory is, for its legacy and its potential, the Goffe Street Armory will be reborn.
The Goffe Street Armory is a landmark structure in New Haven, with a rich history dating back to the Revolutionary War and serving as a grand civic hall for the city. Advocates for the Armory, led by Nadine Horton, recognize this legacy and seek to refurbish and update the Armory for a second life as a community asset. Our work supports this effort through an analysis of precedent armory redevelopments and by highlighting the historic Black Expo as a key moment that can continue to inspire local residents and future generations on black empowerment. And yet the movement has only just begun. As the advocates for the Armory gather momentum, a broad coalition of community supporters will need to be assembled to marshal the political will necessary to break ground on redevelopment. Former funders of the Black Coalition, such as Yale University and the Rockefeller Foundation, can be re-engaged again to provide financial backing. New neighbors such as NextHaven and institutions such as Hillhouse High School should be recruited to generate greater exposure of the Armory. A community memory project can revitalize the Armory in the public consciousness. When a critical mass of the community understands how valuable the Armory is, for its legacy and its potential, the Goffe Street Armory will be reborn.
Sources:
Brandon, Heather. “Common Ground, Inc. and the Former Swift Factory Site: Potential for a Community Land Trust in Hartford.” (Master’s thesis, Bryn Mawr College, 1993). http://www.hartfordinfo.org/issues/wsd/EconomicDevelopment/Heather_Brandon_thesis.pdf.
Brown, Lydia. “Reclaiming Connecticut’s Historical Industrial Buildings.”Connecticut Public Radio, June 9, 2015. https://www.wnpr.org/post/reclaiming-connecticuts-historic-industrial-buildings.
Campbell, Susan. “What Redlining Did to Connecticut's Impoverished Neighborhoods.” www.wnpr.org.
Connecticut Public Radio, April 19, 2016.
https://www.wnpr.org/post/what-redlining-did-connecticuts-impoverished-neighborhoods.
City of New Haven, Connecticut. "Zoning Map of the City of New Haven." www.newhavenct. gov. Office of Information Technology, March 21, 2007; last modified September 17, 2014. https://www.newhavenct.gov/civicax/filebank/blobdload.aspx?blobid=23117.
City of Providence Department of Planning and Development. “Preserving the Cranston Street Armory for Future Generations.” City of Providence, accessed April 10, 2020. https://pvdplanning.wordpress.com/2018/09/13/preserving-the-cranston-street-armory-for-future-generatio ns/.
Community Solutions. “History of Swift”. Swiftfactory.org. Community Solutions, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.swiftfactory.org/our-story.
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Cranston Street Armory Steering Committee. “Cranston Street Armory Reuse Plan.” State of Rhode Island, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.cranstonstreetarmory.org/.
CT Trust. “Hartford’s Swift Factory is Reborn.” Preservation Connecticut, September 10, 2018. https://preservationct.org/hartfords-swift-factory-is-reborn.
Dana Collection, “Military” Files. New Haven Museum. Date Accessed: February 25, 2020.
De La Torre, Vanessa. “Swift Factory Project Gets $2.8M Federal Grant to Spur Jobs.” Hartford Courant, August 11, 2017.
https://www.courant.com/community/hartford/hc-news-hartford-swift-factory-grant-20170810-story.html.
Gern, James E. “The Urban Environment and Childhood Asthma Study.” The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 125, no. 3 (March 2010): 545–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.01.037.
Hartford Business Journal. “Hartford’s Swift Factory Wins Key Funding.” Hartfordbusiness.com, August 10, 2017. https://www.hartfordbusiness.com/article/hartfords-swift-factory-redevelopment-wins-key-funding.
List, Madeleine. “R.I. Seeks Business to Occupy Cranston Street Armory.” Providence Journal, October 4, 2019.
https://www.providencejournal.com/news/20191004/ri-seeks-business-to-occupy-cranston-street-armory.
McCormack, Margaret, Craig Pollack, Roger Peng, and Emily McGowan. “Time to Rethink the Inner-City Asthma Epidemic?" www.hopkins medicine.org. Johns Hopkins Medicine, January 20, 2015. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/media/releases/time_to_rethink_the_inner_city_asthma_epidemic
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Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York; London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a Division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2017.
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Sparks, Leonard. “Newburgh Armory Celebrates Four Years.” Recordonline.com. Times Herald-Record,December 18, 2014. https://www.recordonline.com/article/20141218/newrs/141219371.
State of Rhode Island Department of Administration. “Request for Proposal: Cranston Street Armory Reuse.” State of Rhode Island, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.cranstonstreetarmory.org/pdf/Armory%20Steering%20Committee%20RFP_FINAL%20DRA FT.pdf.
Svigals + Partners, Architecture + Art. "State Armory, New Haven, CT: Usage Analysis Report." City of New Haven, May, 2010.
Svigals and Partner LLC, 2010. “State Armory, New Haven CT: Usage Analysis Report.” The Black Coalition Weekly, Accessed through America’s Historic Newspapers.
The Hartford Courant, Accessed through ProQuest.
The New Haven Register, Accessed through the Dana Collection and the New Haven Library Local History Collection
The New York Times, Accessed through ProQuest.
Travis Carbonella, “CWOS: Alternative Space Weekend” https://vimeo.com/142209838
U.S. Department of Treasury. “Treasury and IRS Issue Final Regulations on Opportunity Zones." www.home.treasury.gov.U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 19, 2019.https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm864.
West Broadway Neighbors Association. “Update: Cranston Street Armory RFP.” wbna.org, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.wbna.org/news/2017/3/1/update-cranston-street-armory.
Brandon, Heather. “Common Ground, Inc. and the Former Swift Factory Site: Potential for a Community Land Trust in Hartford.” (Master’s thesis, Bryn Mawr College, 1993). http://www.hartfordinfo.org/issues/wsd/EconomicDevelopment/Heather_Brandon_thesis.pdf.
Brown, Lydia. “Reclaiming Connecticut’s Historical Industrial Buildings.”Connecticut Public Radio, June 9, 2015. https://www.wnpr.org/post/reclaiming-connecticuts-historic-industrial-buildings.
Campbell, Susan. “What Redlining Did to Connecticut's Impoverished Neighborhoods.” www.wnpr.org.
Connecticut Public Radio, April 19, 2016.
https://www.wnpr.org/post/what-redlining-did-connecticuts-impoverished-neighborhoods.
City of New Haven, Connecticut. "Zoning Map of the City of New Haven." www.newhavenct. gov. Office of Information Technology, March 21, 2007; last modified September 17, 2014. https://www.newhavenct.gov/civicax/filebank/blobdload.aspx?blobid=23117.
City of Providence Department of Planning and Development. “Preserving the Cranston Street Armory for Future Generations.” City of Providence, accessed April 10, 2020. https://pvdplanning.wordpress.com/2018/09/13/preserving-the-cranston-street-armory-for-future-generatio ns/.
Community Solutions. “History of Swift”. Swiftfactory.org. Community Solutions, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.swiftfactory.org/our-story.
Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development. “An Overview on the Opportunity Zone Program.” www.ct.gov. Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development, accessed February 23, 2020.
http://portal.ct.gov/DECD/Content/Community-Development/04_Incentives_LiabilityRelief/Location-Based-Incentives/Opportunity-Zones.
Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development. “Designated Opportunity Zones.” www.//portal.ct.gov. Connecticut Department of Economic and Community Development, accessed February 23, 2020. https://ctmaps.maps.arcgis.com/apps/View/index.html?appid=5e0c6a70e75744b0b0bcd3b4d5280571&ext ent=-74.0893,41.0406,-71.4526,42.0163.
Connecticut State Department of Public Health. "Combined Asthma ED and Hospitalizations by Census Track, New Haven, Connecticut, 2010-2014" www.portal.ct.gov. Connecticut State Department of Public Health, accessed February 23, 2020.
https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Departments-and-Agencies/DPH/dph/hems/asthma/gis/NewHavenFinalpdf.p df?la=en.
Cranston Street Armory Steering Committee. “Cranston Street Armory Reuse Plan.” State of Rhode Island, accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.cranstonstreetarmory.org/.
CT Trust. “Hartford’s Swift Factory is Reborn.” Preservation Connecticut, September 10, 2018. https://preservationct.org/hartfords-swift-factory-is-reborn.
Dana Collection, “Military” Files. New Haven Museum. Date Accessed: February 25, 2020.
De La Torre, Vanessa. “Swift Factory Project Gets $2.8M Federal Grant to Spur Jobs.” Hartford Courant, August 11, 2017.
https://www.courant.com/community/hartford/hc-news-hartford-swift-factory-grant-20170810-story.html.
Gern, James E. “The Urban Environment and Childhood Asthma Study.” The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 125, no. 3 (March 2010): 545–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.01.037.
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